Mohammad Daniul Huq and Aminur Rahman :
Bangla literature dates back to the 7th century at least and it may be divided into three main periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The different periods may be dated as follows: ancient period from 650-1200, medieval period from 1200-1800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present. The medieval period may again be divided into three periods: early medieval-also known as the period of transition-from 1200-1350; high medieval from 1350-1700, including the pre-Chaitanya period from 1350-1500 and the Chaitanya period from 1500-1700; and late medieval from 1700-1800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can again be divided into six phases: the era of prose from 1800-1860, the era of development from 1860-1900, the phase of Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) from 1890-1930, the post-Rabindranath phase from 1930 to 1947, the post-partition phase from 1947 to 1970, and the Bangladesh phase from 1971 to the present.
The conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in the 3rd century BC led to the spread of Aryan languages in the Bengal delta. The Bangla language, however, developed from Prakrit, through Apabhramsa and Abahattha and outside the direct influence of Aryan languages. The earliest extant specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as Charyapada composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language of these hymns is only partly understood, it is called Sandhya or twilight language. The Charyapada hymns possess both linguistic and literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composers of the Charyapada hymns, include Luipa, Bhusukupa, Kahnapa and Savarpa.
Period of transition is from 1201 to 1350. The anecdotes, rhymes and sayings of dak and khana may be dated to this period. The Apabhramsa of the Charyapada became more Bangla in character. Among the specimens of this period is Ramai Pandit’s narrative poem Sunyapurana (13th-14th century). Another example of early Bangla is a collection of lyrical poems in Apabhramsa entitled Prakrtapaingala. A Bangla song has also been found in Halayudh Misra’s Sanskrit book Sekhasubhodaya (c 1203). Pre-Chaitanya period (1350-1500) During this period, Bangla literature developed in three main areas: Vaishnava literature, Mangala literature and translation literature. This period also saw the beginning of Muslim Bangla literature in the form of romantic and narrative poems.
The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the poet Baru Chandidas (14th century) who rendered Jaydev’s Sanskrit lyrics about Radha and Krishna into Bangla. The names of several poets who went by the name of Chandidas have been found in the middle Ages: Adi Chandidas, Kavi Chandidas, Dvija Chandidas and Dina Chandidas. The confusion about whether there were one or several poets called Chandidas is known in Bangla literature as the ‘Chandidas riddle’. Chandidas has been credited with over a thousand lyrics. The introduction to Srikrisnakirtan edited by Basantaranjan Ray Vidvadvallabh and published in 1916 by Bangiya Sahitya Parisat mentions the name of Baru Chandidas. He was perhaps the original Chandidas who composed verses in 1350.
The patronage provided by the Muslim rulers, particularly Sultan Alauddin Hussein Shah, his son Nasrat Shah and commander-in-chief, Paragal Khan, in promoting Bangla literature is specially noteworthy. The 45-year rule of the Hussein Shah dynasty (1493-1538) in Bengal not only led to political, social and cultural prosperity, but also nurtured Bangla language and literature. It was during the rule of Hussein Shah that some Bengali poets began composing lyrics in Brajabuli. It was also during his rule that Kanka wrote Vidyasundar Kahini in praise of Satyapir (c 1502).
Padavali and other medieval lyrics were based on the story of Radha and Krishna and were written by innumerable poets, Hindu and Muslim, including some women poets. Among the Padavali poets were Chandidas, jnanadas, Lochandas, govindadas, Raysekhar, Sasisekhar, Balaram Das, Narottam Das, Narahari Das and Radhamohan Thakur.
Maladhar Basu composed Srikrisnavijay, a free translation of the Sanskrit Srimadbhagavata. The poem is also known as Govindamangal or Govindavijay and is believed to be the earliest translation work in Bangla. Several poets translated the Sanskrit Bhagavata, Ramayana and Mahabharata into Bangla during this period. Krttivas Ojha (15th century) was the first to translate the Ramayana into Bangla. He was followed by several other poets. In the 17th century, Chandravati, daughter of Dwija Bansidas, the composer of Manasamangal, wrote Ramayanagatha. The first Bangla version of the Mahabharata was possibly Kavindra Parameshwar’s Mahabharata or Kavindra Mahabharata (1525). Sanjay and Srikar Nandi also wrote versions of the Mahabharata. Popularly, the most important Bangla Mahabharata was, however, composed by Kashiram Das around 1602-10. It is probable, however, that other poets also contributed towards the final version that was printed at Serampore Press in 1801-3. Because of its refined language and feelings of devotion, this version became more popular than other Bangla versions.
The oldest of the extant Mangalkavyas is Manasamangal, by Vijay Gupta, composed perhaps in 1494-95. According to the bhanita, or signature piece, Vijay Gupta was a resident of the village of Fullasri in Barisal. Vijay Gupta’s contemporary, Bipradas Pipilai, also wrote a poem on Manasa titled Manasavijay (c 1494). Another version of Manasamangal is Narayan Dev’s Padmapurana. These narrative lyrics describe the greatness of the gods and goddesses, but also provide vivid pictures of a land oppressed on the one hand by kings and on the other by floods, famines, epidemics, snakes, and tigers. Another important genre of Mangalkavya is Chandimangal. Its first composer, Manik Datta, perhaps belonged to the pre-Chaitanya era. He was followed by the poet Madhavacharya towards the end of the 16th century. Two other famous poets of Chandimangal were Mukundaram Chakravarti and Dvija Madhav.
The poems written by Muslims during the Middle Ages can be divided into 6 groups: narrative poems (based on Muslim and Indian stories), religious poems, poems on cultural links, dirges, poems on astrology and poems on musicology. The greatest contribution of the Muslims to Bangla literature during this period was, however, the introduction of narrative and romantic poems, many of them being free translations or adaptations of arabic or persian romances.
Shah Muhammad Sagir (c 1400) was one of the earliest of the Bengali Muslim poets. Though his romance Yusuf-Zulekha contains no signature piece identifying him, he is generally regarded as being from East Bengal as copies of his poems have been found in the Chittagong-Comilla-Tripura region. Other epic poets include Jainuddin, Muzammil, Sheikh Faizullah, Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan. Jainuddin became famous with Rasulbijay, his only epic. Muzammil became famous mainly for his three poetic works: Nitisastravarta, Sayatnama and Khanjancharita.
Donagazi’s Saifulmuluk Badiuzzamal (mid-16th century) is written in simple language and reveals the influence of Prakrit. Sheikh Faizullah occupies an important place among the Muslim poets of the medieval period with Goraksavijay, Gazivijay, Satyapir (1575), Zainaber Chautisa and Ragnama. Goraksavijay, which is based on Kavindra’s poem, is in two parts. Part one describes how Gorakhnath rescued his guru, Minanath, while part two describes the ascetic life of King Gopichandra. Zainaber Chautisa narrates the sad story of Karbala in the form of Zainab’s lament. Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan’s only extant work, Laily-Majnu, evidently composed between 1560 and 1575, is a thematic translation of the great Persian poet Zami’s Laily-Majnu.
Several Muslim poets were influenced by Vaishnavism, among them Chand Kazi (15th century), and Afzal Ali (17th century). Chand Kazi was the Kazi of Nabadwip under Sultan Hussein Shah (1493-1519) when Vaishnavism spread to Nabadwip. Afzal Ali’s Nasihatnama is composed in the Vaishnava style.
Other medieval Muslim poets include Syed Sultan (c 1550-1648, Nabibamsa, Shab-i-Miraj, Rasulbijay, Ofat-i-Rasul, Jaykum Rajar Ladai, Iblisnama, Jnanachautisa, Jnanapradip, Marfati gan, Padavali), Sheikh Paran (c 1550-1615, Nurnama, Nasihatnama), Haji Muhammad (c 1550-1620, Nur Jamal, Suratnama), Nasrullah Khan (c 1560-1625, Janganama, Musar Sawwal, Shariatnama, Hidayitul Islam), Muhammad Khan (c 1580-1650, Satya-Kali-Vivad-Sambad, Hanifar Ladai, Maktul Husein), Syed Martuza (c 1590-1662, Yog-Kalandar, Padavali), Sheikh Muttalib (c 1595-1660, Kifayitul-Musallin), Mir Muhammad Shafi (c 1559-1630, Nurnama, Nurkandil, Sayatnama), Abdul Hakim (c 1620-1690, Lalmati-Sayfulmulk, Nurnama). Poets who composed between 1600 and 1757 include Nawajis Khan, Qamar Ali, Mabgal (Chand), Abdul Nabi, Muhammad Fasih, Fakir Garibullah, Muhammad Yakub, Sheikh Mansur, Muhammad Uzir Ali, Sheikh Sadi and Heyat Mamud. Syed Sultan’s Nabibamsa, Muhammad Khan’s Maktul Husein and Sheikh Chand’s Rasulbijay are known as Islamic Puranas.
Chaitanyadev not only introduced the Gaudiya school of Vaishavism in Bengal, but also inspired a powerful group of writers to write biographies about him, among them Govindadas Karmakar’s Govindadaser Kadacha, Jayananda’s Chaitanyamangal (end of the 16th century), Brndabandas’ Chaitanyabhagavat (1573), Lochandas’ (1523-1589) Chaitanyamangal and Krishnadas Kaviraj’s Chaitanyacharitamrta (1615). Several other biographies were also written about Chaitanyadev’s followers including Narahari Chakravarti’s Bhaktiratnakar (biographies of Chaitanya followers) Nityananda Das’ Premavilas (biographies of Srinivas, Norottam and Syamananda) and Isan Nagar’s Advaitaprakas (1568-69). Chaitanyacharitamrita is considered to be the best biography of Chaitanyadev. This scholarly book contains his life story, his philosophy and devotion, all expressed in simple language. Jayananda’s Chaitanyamangal contains many interesting facts of the period, for example, how the Hindus were learning Persian and wearing Muslim outfits.
Towards the end of the Middle Ages, there was considerable cultivation of Bangla literature in the independent and semi-independent states on the borders of Bengal. Arakan became a tributary state of Gaud in 1430. For the subsequent 200 years the rulers of Arakan patronised Bangla language and literature. Among those who wrote poetry in Bangla under the patronage of the Arakan court was Daulat Qazi (about 1600-1638) whose Satimayna O Lorchandrani was the first Bangla romance. Daulat Qazi was unable to complete the poem which was later completed by Aalaol (c 1607-1680). Apart from Padmavati, believed to be his finest poem, Alaol also wrote Saifulmulk Badiuzzamal, a Bangla rendering of a Persian narrative about the romance of prince Saifulmulk and the fairy princess Badiuzzamal. Arakan’s other poets include Maradan (about 1600-1645) who wrote Nasirnama, and Quraishi Magan Thakur who wrote Chandravati, a fairy-tale narrative.
The close of the medieval period was in many ways a period of decline. The decline of the Mughal Empire, the inroads of the European trading powers and the establishment of the British halted the natural flow of literary creation. However, the tradition of Vaishnava literature, mangalkavya, and translation work continued. There was a great deal of influence of both the Hindu Puranas and Islamic thoughts. The main literary productions of the period include Padavali and Mangalkavya.
Padavali writers in the 18th century include Narahari Chakravarti, Natavar Das, Dinabandhu Das, Chandraxekhar-Xaxixekhar and Jagadananda. Their poems were, however, more full of ornamentation than meaning.
Mangalkavya Versions of Chandimangal continued to be composed, an important version being that by Ramchandra Yati written 1766-67. Interest also grew in Dharmamabgal, with several poets, including Ghanaram Chakravarti, Narasimha Basu, Manikram Gabguli, Ramkanta Ray and Sahadev Chakravarti, writing different versions. Mangalkavyas also started being composed about new deities, for example, Suryamabgal, Gabgamabgal, Xitalamabgal, Laksmimabgal, Sasthimabgal and Sarasvatimabgal. Special mention may be made of Durgadas Mukherjee’s Gabgabhaktitarabgini.
Bharatchandra, perhaps the greatest poet of the 18th century, wrote Nagastak and Gabgastak in Sanskrit and, in Bangla, Satyanarayaner Panchali, Rasamavjari as well as Annadamabgal. Annadamangal contains eight episodes and three parts: Xivayan-Annadamangal, Vidyasundar-Kalikamabgal and Mansimha-Annapurnamabgal. The character of Annada links the different parts although the main story is how Bhavananda’s fortunes were transformed through Annada’s blessings. Bharatchandra had originally planned to write an epic on the model of Kavikabkan’s Xrixrichandimangal, but, bowing to the taste of the 18th century and the desire of Raja Krishnachandra Roy, he turned it into the story of Vidyasundar. As a result, Bharatchandra’s poem is a Mangalkavya only in form. Although the poet was himself inclined towards Vaishnavism, he presented the deities as fun-loving human beings. Annadamangal influenced later poets in many ways; the poets of Kalikamangal copied it extensively.
In the artificial atmosphere of an age of decline, Ramprasad Sen (1721-1781) was an exception because of his sincere devotionalism and simplicity of language. Although he was reputed for his Xaktapadavali, he also wrote Vidyasundarkahini and Krsnakirtan. In the songs of Ramprasad the fierce Kali turned into a kindly mother. Some other poets of this genre were Radhakanta Mixra (perhaps the first poet of kolkata), Kavindra Chakravarti and Nidhiram Acharya of chittagong.
An important part of 18th century literature was oral literature, the main theme of which was love. Because this literature was unwritten it kept on changing, right up to the 19th century. In much folklore the main role is played by a woman. The most important folkore collections are Maimansingha-Gitika by Dinesh Chandra Sen and Purbabanga-Gitika by Chandrakumar De.
The modern period of Bangla literature is usually dated from the foundation of fort william college in 1800. The distinguishing features of Bangla literature of this period were: (a) the rise and development of powerful prose literature; (b) the influence of Sanskrit scholars on prose during the first half of the 19th century; (c) the influence of western literature; (d) the diversification of subjects; (e) the rise of periodical literature; (f) the elevation of colloquial language to the status of a literary language; (g) the development of new poetic genres. The writers of this period were inspired by the ideal of creating a universal, eternal and independent literature. There was also at this time a growing awareness that literature greatly influenced national life and that it was the finest measure of national character.
The modern period may be divided into six phases. In the first phase (1800-1850), the era of prose, Christian missionaries and Sanskrit scholars ushered in modernism through their prose writing. In the second phase, the era of development (1850-1900), Bengali writers, influenced by the west, created novels and poems that have stood the test of time. The third phase, the era of Rabindranath Tagore (1890-1930), was dominated by the poet, and, although shorter, was prolific. The very short fourth phase, the post-Rabindranath Tagore phase (1930-1947), from the era of Rabindranath Tagore to the partition of India, is regarded as a separate phase outside the Tagore influence. The fifth phase, the post-partition phase (1947-1970), saw the political division of Bengal and the bifurcation of Bangla literature into the literature of West Bengal and the literature of East Bengal-The then East Pakistan. The six and latest phase is the Bangladesh phase.
The era of prose (1800-1860) Bangla prose writing developed in the 18th century mainly for adminstrative and proselytising purposes. The first Bangla books were those by Christian missionaries. Dom Antonio’s Brahmin-Roman-Catholic-Sambad, for example, was the first Bangla book to be printed towards the end of the 17th century. The foreign rulers also felt the need to learn Bangla, leading to the compilation of dictionaries and the writing of books of grammar. The Portuguese missionary Manoel da Assumpcam’s bilingual dictionary, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes, was printed in Roman script from Lisbon in 1743. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed wrote the first Bangla grammar, A Grammar of Bengal Language (1776), to help the English learn Bangla.
The book was printed in 1778 from Hughli Press, and Bangla script was used in its examples and quotations. For administrative purposes law books in Bangla were needed. This is why a number of law books were translated and published at this time. Forster became well known particularly for his Cornwalisi code (1793) and Xabdakos (1799). Although these are not original works, they give an idea of the nature of Bangla prose in the 18th century.
William Carey (1761-1834) came to Bengal for missionary work but became famous as the pioneer of Bangla prose. In 1800 he published Mathi Rachita Mabgal Samachar, a Bangla translation of the Bible, from Serampore mission. He later joined Fort William College and devoted himself to writing textbooks. Fort William College had been established in Kolkata in May 1800 to prepare English civil servants for their administrative duties. One of their subjects was the local language. However, the absence of proper Bangla texts posed considerable difficulties. A team of Bangla scholars led by Carey accordingly began writing textbooks in Bangla. This is how a planned form of Bangla language developed. Other scholars who helped the development of Bangla prose were Ramram Basu, Golaknath Sharma, Mrityunjay Vidyalankar, Tarinicharan Mitra, Rajib Lochan Mukhopadhyay , Chandicharan Munshi and Haraprasad Roy.
(To be continued)
